Jayasekera Santhi , PhD, Professor
PhD student of the S.A. Gerasimov All-Russian State Institute of Cinematography (VGIK). S.A. Gerasimov All-Russian State Institute of Cinematography (VGIK) (in 2015-2018).
Moscow, Russia
INDIAN CINEMA (1975-2018) AND TRADITIONS OF NATIONAL CULTURE.
Abstract: Indian cinema has long occupied a significant place in world cinema. When talking about Indian cinema, it is necessary to differentiate between India as a special subject reproduced in world cinema and Indian cinema proper, created in India and predominantly by Indian film masters. The two phenomena and concepts are constantly interacting with each other and yet they are not identical.
The period under consideration in the history of Indian cinema occupies a fundamentally important place in it and is, in some respects, a transition and turning point. During this period, Indian cinema consciously refuses to assert any kind of violence, which is essentially futile as a driving force of social development and as a norm and model for human thinking and behaviour, and puts forward the idea of interaction between various social forces, political tendencies and individuals. Ultimately – material and spiritual beginnings. This idea extends to history, even the most bizarre and remote, and to the contradictory modernity.
Indian cinema in general and especially of a certain historical period (1975-2018), based on the most important traditions of Indian culture, is a “phenomenon”, theoretically and practically significant for the spiritual and material development of modern humanity, its culture and everyday life.
Keywords: Indian culture; Indian cinema; director; story; music.
INDIAN CINEMA (1975-2018) AND TRADITIONS OF NATIONAL CULTURE.
Abstract: Indian cinema has long occupied a significant place in world cinema. When we talk about Indian cinema, it is necessary to differentiate India as a special subject reproduced in world cinema, and Indian cinema itself, created in India and mainly by Indian film masters. Both phenomena and concepts constantly interact with each other and at the same time they are not identical.
The period under consideration in the history of Indian cinema occupies a crucial place in it and is, in a certain sense, a transition-turning point. Indian cinema during this period deliberately refuses to claim any kind of violence, which in essence is unpromising as a driving force for social development and as a norm and model for human thinking and behaviour, puts forward the idea of interaction between various social forces, political trends and individual individuals. Ultimately, a material and spiritual beginning. This idea extends to history, even the most bizarre and distant, and to contradictory modernity.
Indian cinema in general and especially of a certain historical period (1975-2018), based on the most important traditions of Indian culture, is a “phenomenon” that is theoretically and practically significant for the spiritual and material development of modern humanity, its culture and everyday life.
Key words: Indian culture; Indian cinema; director; plot; music.
For many Indian films of the indicative period, the very titles themselves are emotionally expressive and orientate the viewer in advance in their definite intent and the real content contained in them.
In Revenge and the Law (1975) and The Avenger (1976), the hero acts as a bearer of humane justice rather than “revenge” as brutal violence.
The films “Jonginam” (1976), “A Difficult Role” (1977), “The Reverse Side of Love” (1981), “The Temple of Love” (1988), “In Dreams of Love” (1991), and “Disappointment” (1992) deal with the “difficult journey” to true love through various “disappointments” that the brightest “dreams” of true love are somehow realised.
The film “Madness” (1978) is about the seemingly “mad” but, in reality, deeply just and peaceful behaviour of the hero.
“The Cry of the Wounded” (1980) contains a call for all possible support for a man who unhesitatingly stands for good and justice.
The film “I am Azad, I am Free” (1989) is a true hymn to the hero’s freedom from corruption and blackmail.
In order to bring goodness to people, the hero must walk his truly “fiery path”, as the film Fiery Path (1990) shows.
The film The Ganges, Thy Waters Are Muddy (1985) traces the hero’s path to freedom and independence, which symbolically “cleanses” the sacred waters of the Ganges of all filth.
The film “Son of God” (2003) has no religious meaning. “Son of God” refers to the hero who lives near a cemetery (“the domain of God Shiva”). The hero urges people to get as far away as possible from betrayal, greed, lies and cruelty through his own life experiences.
The films “Hard Role” (1977), “Nachiya” (2018) and “Jonginam” (1976) draw special attention to the plight of the Indian woman and assert her right, and even duty, to play an important role in public life.
“Disco Dancer” (1982) is a film about the difficult journey of a talent to its well-deserved and truly popular recognition.
“Lovers” (2006, Aditya Chopra), “Once Upon a Time in India” (2001, Ashutosh Gowariker) – Oscar nominee. In the films the place of action is precisely India with its social and psychological peculiarities. “Veer and Zara” (2004, Yash Chopra), “Devdas” (2002, Sanjay Leela Bhansali), “Bombay” (1995, Mani Ratnam) are the names of the characters who are at the centre of attention. The films have ambiguously symbolic titles: “The Bearer” (Manmohan Desai, Prayag Raj, 1983), “Hero” (1987, Mani Ratnam), “Boss Shivaji” (2007, Shakmuchan Shankar), “Jodhe and Akbar” (2008, Ashutosh Gowariker), “Rose” (Mani Ratnam, 1992), “Villain” (Subhash Ghai, 1993), “The Colour of Saffron” (Rakesh Omprakash Mehra, 2006), etc. д.
The titles of films such as The Last Hope (2005, Sanjay Leela Bhansali), Stars on Earth (2007, Amir Kahn), Three Idiots (2009, Rajkumar Hirani), and The Plea (2010, Sanjay Leela Bhansali) are orientating and meaningful.
The films of this period are characterised by a tense plot, socially acute collisions, and the complex interaction of old and new, past and present and future. However, all this happens without a tragic outcome (“Revenge and the Law”, “The Avenger”, “Zhonginam”, “A Difficult Role”, “Madness”, “The Scream of the Wounded”, etc.).
Respect for the past, old age with its traditions and can and should organically coexist with new trends in life and with new demands inherent in the younger generation: “The Widow’s Fate” (1986), “The Family” (1987), “Ganges, Thy Waters Are Muddled” (1985), “Nachiya” (2018), “Disappointment” (1992), “Hard Role” (1977).
The films are saturated with complex love collisions, while their resolution is fundamentally different from the Western European tradition. There is no legitimised suffering and tragic hopelessness in them.
According to Indian cultural tradition, true love is always selfless, unselfish, unselfish, unmotivated and uncalculated. Such love excludes irreconcilable rivalry. A highly moral person without any struggle, consciously and voluntarily concedes in love to his rival, who, in fact, is stronger and deeper in love with the object of his own love, and which is more in line with the feelings of the rival.
Any tragedy, turns out in this case optimistic. One way or another, happiness triumphs. These are the films “The Fate of the Widow” (1986), “In Dreams of Love” (1991), “Disappointment” (1992), “The Reverse Side of Love” (1981), “Disco Dancer” (1982). “Temple of Love” (1988) is a film about the great forgiveness in love, even when it seems impossible to forgive. The happiness of forgiveness is incommensurable in its power and truthfulness with any victory achieved through coercion and violence.
No wealth in itself and no greed can give true happiness: “Jonginam” (1976), “The Wounded Man’s Cry” (1980), “Disco Dancer” (1982), “A Difficult Role” (1977), “Temple of Love” (1988), “Son of God” (2003). It is highly relevant.
The wholehearted reinforcement of enduring family values is a tradition of Indian culture, which gets its embodiment in Indian cinema.
At the same time, it is vital to abandon some family traditions: a widow becomes the spouse of her dead husband’s brother in The Fate of the Widow (1986). Strict obedience to the elders in the family and men leads to acute conflict: “A Difficult Role” (1977), “The Ganges, Your Waters Are Troubled” (1985), “Disappointment” (1992). Old age and the past must be respected, but one must not blindly obey them.
The leitmotif of many films is the problem of Good and Evil. Good must be able to defend itself and achieve non-violent triumph, either directly or prospectively: “Zhonginam” (1976), “A Difficult Role” (1977), “Madness” (1978), “The Reverse Side of Love” (1981), “The Fiery Path” (1990).
Goodness and justice always triumph, directly or indirectly, this is the leitmotif of Indian cinema, which corresponds to the Indian national culture, dating back to Buddhism as a philosophical and moral teaching.
At the same time, it is senseless and futile to fight evil through violence: “Gangwa” (1984), “Ganges, Thy Waters Are Muddy” (1985), “I am Azad, I am Free” (1989). Such a struggle excludes lynching: “Gangwa” (1984).
The inner and outer law, in keeping with human nature, triumphs. Trust, unselfishness, kindness and sympathy defeat cruelty, violence, intolerance and betrayal.
Plots:
“Lovers”: there are stable family and domestic traditions, but the future lies in new, more humane relationships between people, without dogmatic prohibitions. In the film “Once Upon a Time in India” convincingly shows the victory of justice, no matter what. “The Bearer”: the transformation of a poor boy into a recognised leader of oppressed people. “Rose” : selfless love becomes politically directed. “The Villain” : even in the criminal, true humanity is preserved and manifested when awakened by goodness and justice. The film “The Colour of Saffron” shows that heroes, defenders of the oppressed people, die with a “smile on their lips”.
“Hero”, “Bombay”: the complex relationship between various lawbreakers and the police. “Betrayal”, “Black Friday”, “Lifeline”: the senselessness of gang warfare, especially on the basis of religious intolerance (Hinduism, Islam). The high mission of charity no matter what (“Boss Shivaji”). The disastrous consequences for humans of trying to endow a robot with human qualities (“Robot”). This film is particularly instructive for apologists of “artificial intelligence”.
Sanjay Leela Bhansali’s film “The Last Hope” (2005) is about man’s indomitable and even tragically intense journey to the light, literally and figuratively. His film “The Plea” (2010) also expressively defends man’s inviolable right to life with all his physical limitations.
Amir Khan’s “Stars on Earth” (2007) refers to various children as “stars” whose upbringing in the spirit of kindness requires a tremendous amount of soul work on the part of the educator.
Ashutosh Gowariker in the film “Three Idiots” (2009) metaphorically calls “idiots” three friends who, despite all the difficulties of life, maintain their loyal friendship and appear as “idiots” (incomprehensible – unique) to the “ordinary consciousness”. In the fantastic film “Pikey” (2014) he expressively shows that true love, impartial and sublime, organically connects the alien and the inhabitants of Earth.
Prakash Jha’s film Reservations (2011) and Perseverance in Truth (2013) affirms and develops the ideas of Mahatma Gandhi and a world without violence existing for the benefit of all people in the story and characters.
The film The Fiery Path (2012) shows that it is vital for society and every member of it to interrupt and stop any inhuman upheaval in some non-violent way.
True love can overcome any differences (socio-political, religious, etc.) demonstrates Ashutosh’s film.
Indian cinema is characterised by an organic synthesis of various genres (1975-2018), which gives them a special meaningful versatility and pictorial and semantic polyphony, a real ability to have an aesthetic impact on the most diverse audience with different tastes and different measures of inner preparedness to perceive cinema.
This genre is called “masala” in honour of “masala”, an Indian mixture of various spices. Each film in the masala genre has its own spice, in other words, its own special genre-aesthetic emphasis.
This is an Indian western with an in-depth psychology (“Revenge and the Law”). It combines action and thriller, drama, musical and comedy.
Crime interacts with melodrama (“Jonginam”).
The film “Madness” differs from the Bollywood “masala” in that genre-wise it is a true historical drama filmed realistically.
The authentic soundtrack is the film “Disco Dancer”.
An impressive film – a story and at the same time an allegory – “Ganges, Thy Waters are muddy”.
A family drama-parable is the film “Temple of Love”.
A socio-political and epic narrative – “I am Azad, I am Free”. Comedy, drama and musical at the same time – the film “In Dreams of Love”.
“Devdas”, “Lovers” – a sequentially developing narrative. “Once Upon a Time in India” is a special sports drama with elements of a musical. The new (freedom) triumphs over colonisation (oppression) “Vir and Zara”. The love collision, epically narrated, is linked to religion and social inequality. True love can overcome any obstacle, including religious ones.
“Devdas” is an adaptation of the 1917 novel, subtly modernised in cinema. The happiness of lovers is hindered until today by traditional and everyday prejudices. At the same time, each person now chooses his or her own way in love and to love, which can be true and only seemingly true. Everything depends on the sensitivity and insight of the characters themselves.
The bizarre and intense lives of the characters are shown in the versatile narrative (“The Bearer”, “The Rose”, “The Villain”). A multi-layered plot in lyro-epic expression is presented in “The Colour of Saffron”.
It is mostly unfolded and multi-layered and sequential narrative (“Hero”, “Bombay”, “Betrayal”, “Boss Shivaji”, “Robot”). Deep psychological drama (“Lifetime”). “Robot” – a combination of sci-fi, action, drama, melodrama and comedy. “Black Friday” is a kind of symbiosis of documentary and feature film.
The main and predominant genre for many films is a dramatically intense, extended and multidimensional realistic narrative: “The Last Hope”, “Stars on Earth”, “Three Idiots”, “Fire Road”, “Reservations”, “Perseverance in Truth”, “Peakey” – science fiction. A touching melodrama appears in the film “The Plea”.
A historical-epic and cautionary tale is “Jodhaa and Akbar”.
The directors of the films of this period (1975-2018), true masters of their craft, have an individual and inimitable vision and understanding of the diverse material they incorporate in the film they make.
Ramesh Sippy (‘Revenge and the Law’, 1975) is a master of the fascinatingly suspenseful plot. His film “Revenge and the Law” ran in Bombay for four years without a break with uninterrupted success with the audience.
Pramod Chakravorty (“The Avenger”, 1976) skilfully uses melodramatic collisions and various stunts (dashing hero riding a motorbike, etc.).
Chetan Anand masterfully combines Indian melodrama with crime (“Zhonginam”, 1976) and creates a mystical-looking special synthetic genre in the film “The Reverse Side of Love”, 1981. His mastaka has a real-life basis.
Shyam Benegal belongs to the “Parallel Cinema” as a mirror of social reality, vividly manifested in the film “A Difficult Role”, 1977. The film’s two-colour scheme (black and white and colour) allows expressively conveying socially different periods (gloomy and joyful) in the heroine’s life. In “Madness” (1978) the director reproduces the historical drama on a large scale (battles between the Sipayas and the British troops) and asserts the “madness of the brave” as the true “wisdom of life”, which can and must lead to peace between nations and individuals.
Govind Nihalani’s film ‘The Cry of the Wounded’ (1980) shows an invincible man who stands up for justice in life with unconcern and determination. The film deservedly won the first Golden Peacock Award at the Delhi International Film Festival in 1981. The film is the debut of the director, a disciple of Shyam Benegal. Govind Nihalani simultaneously acts as a marvellous cameraman.
Babbar Subhash seamlessly combines musical and melodrama in Disco Dancer (1982).
Balu Mahendra’s film “Sad Story” (1983), despite the sad events (the heroine’s illness and her suffering), is filled with inner light and unwavering vitality.
The film “Gangwa” (1984) created Rajasekhara in the spirit of a thriller, imbued with ineradicable optimism.
Raj Kapoor in Ganges, Thy Waters Are Muddled (1985) shows that certain ancient traditions that oppress the inner and outer freedom of man are metaphorically capable of “muddying” the sacred waters of the Ganges. What is truly sacred is freedom.
Sukhwant Dhada offers his own adaptation of Punjabi writer Rajinder Singh’s novel, impressively conveying the unforgettable flavour of village life with its traditions and customs, positive and negative.
Shashilal Nair’s film “Family” (1987) has a parable and cautionary nature. It organically intertwines the complicated destinies of adults and children.
К. Bapaya in the film “Temple of Love” (1988) shows how difficult and even sometimes painful way the brightest dreams connected with true love are realised in life.
The film “I am Azad, I am Free” (1989) is socially and politically aimed at overcoming corruption and any blackmail. In the intransigence to this lies the true freedom of speech of the hero, a journalist.
Mukul Anand in his film “The Fiery Path” (1990) emotionally expressively states that a man who stands up for good and justice has to go through his “fiery path”, filled with pain and suffering, burning and hardening. A man must be internally prepared for this if he is firmly on the path of goodness and justice.
Lawrence D’Souza’s film In Dreams of Love (1991) is simultaneously a comedy, a drama and a musical. It features beautiful Indian dances and has wonderful music. Kumar Sanu for the song “Mera Dil Bhi” won the Filmfare Awards, as did Alka Yagnik for “Dekha Hai”, while composers Shravan Rathod and Nadeem Saifi won the award for the film’s music.
Harmesh Malhotra in ‘Disappointment’ (1992) subtly captures all the nuances and overall major sound of the truly great and all-conquering love of the characters despite any obstacles to their coming together.
Bala in “Son of God” (2003) vividly asserts that it is the living person, not some mythical higher power, who has true omnipotence in the way of ridding his real life of suffering and betrayal. And in the film “Nachiya” (2018), the same director praises the wisdom, sensitivity and responsiveness of Indian women, their real ability to lead social organisations of the most diverse level.
Aditya Chopra is a master of suspenseful plot, socially and historically significant. Gowariker is a master of a sharp plot, psychologically intense. Leela is a subtle psychologist – a lyricist. Manmohan Desai Prayag Raj is a skilful narrator. An innovator in the field of ‘political realism’ Mani Ratman. Master of multi-linear and poignant narrative constructions Subhash Thay. Rakesh Omprakash Mehra is a master of romantic drama. Ram Gopal Varma organically combines ‘street language’ and everyday reality with high romanticism towards his characters.
Sanjay Leela Bhansali is a master of tragically intense narratives.
Amir Khan is a true consistent humanist, an uncompromising advocate for children.
Ashutosh Gowariker is a master of cinematic metaphor.
Prakash Dha is a convinced follower of Mahatma Gandhi and his teachings of non-violent confrontation with evil in life.
Indian directors manage to create authentic acting ensembles in their films, in which recognised screen masters and talented actors starting their journey in cinema interact seamlessly.
The masters are:
Rajesh Khanna (‘The Reverse Side of Love’), producer and prominent political activist, winner of many and various awards. One of the most significant actors in Bollywood;
Famous Amitabh Bachchan (“I Am Azad, I Am Free”, “Revenge and the Law”, “Path of Fire”, “The Lovers”, “The Bearer”, “The Last Hope”, “Booking”, “Perseverance in Truth”) who won the National Awards “for Best Actor of the Year”;
Mithun Chakraborty (“The Family,” “Temple of Love”), who won the Filmfare Awards;
Tinnu Anand (“Fire Road”), who won the Screen Videocon Awards “for his performance in a supporting role”;
The multidimensionally inimitable Naseeruddin Shah (“Scream of the Wounded”).
Significant place in Indian cinema, giving it a unique national identity:
Hema Malini (“Revenge and the Law”, “Jonginam”);
Rishi Kapoor (“The Avenger,” “The Fate of the Widow,” “Path of Fire”);
Smita Patil (“A Difficult Role”);
Kamal Hassan (“Sad Story”);
Rajiv Kapoor (who simultaneously directed the film “Ganges, Thy Waters Are Muddled”).
It is impossible to list all the actors. The names already mentioned give an objective idea of the high artistic level of Indian cinema (1975-2018), which continues and develops the traditions of Indian culture.
Traditionally, music and dance, which are national in nature, have always played and continue to play a special role in Indian cinema. This is fully true of Indian cinema 1975-2018.
Literally mesmerises the viewer with dance in the film “Revenge and the Law”, various songs are organically included in the dynamically developing plot (“Madness”).
Composer Rahul Dev Burman’s song “Humein Tumse Pyar Kitna” (“The Reverse Side of Love”) sung by Kishore Kumar became a genuine hit for many years.
Wonderful songs, new electronic music, Disco style dancing (the film is so called “Disco Dancer”) create an enduring success for the film, in which renowned actor Mithun Chakraborty proved to be a brilliant dancer. New Wave composer Bappi Lahiri has given the film a rousing expression.
Ravindra Jain’s music helps in bringing out the characters in ‘Ganges, Thy Waters Are Muddled’.
In the film “I am Azad, I am Free”, one song is played repeatedly, acquiring different intonation depending on the development of the plot and giving it a special expressiveness.
The music of composers Kudalkar and Sharma in the film “Fire Road”, especially songs like “Yun Yun Yuna” and “Abhi Mujh Kahin” and the folk tune “Abhi Mujh Mein Kahin” bring out the true qualities of the characters and deeply stir the viewer. The cheerful song “Kombadi Polali” sung by Shreya Ghoshal and accompanied by Katrina Kaif’s dancing has become popular. The whole thing goes under the title ‘Chikni Chameli’.
For the songs for the film ‘In Dreams of Love’: Kumar Sanu’s ‘Mera Dil Bhi’ and Alka Yagnik’s ‘Dekha Hai’ won the award.
Composers Shravan Rathod and Nadeem Saifi were honoured with the best music award. The film was a true masterpiece.
Aag Hawaa’s musical compositions “Mitti Aur Pauni” and “Dunya Ne Mera Sab Kuch” convey the tragedy of the situations in the film “Disappointment”.
Composer Ilayaraj’s very emotionally meaningful music for ‘Son of God’, especially heard in the globally significant finale of the film: people, get as far away as possible from violence, betrayal, greed and dishonour.
“Once Upon a Time in India”, “Villain” – the music is very dynamic and the dance is outwardly and inwardly infectiously energetic. “Bombay” is an organic synthesis of performance, choreography and various songs. Expressive music accompanies the entire film “Hero”.
Thus, Indian cinema (1975-2018) contains the most important traditions of Indian culture, giving them individual-original expressions and modern interpretations.
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Data about the author:
Jayasekera Santhi – PhD student of the The Gerasimov Institute of Cinematography. (2015-2018)
ORCID: 0000-0003-2440-5777
